Perpetual Encounter: Globalization, Cosmopolitanism, and Acculturation in the Music of the Romanian Principalities (First Half of the 19th Century)
Introduction
The 19th century represents perhaps the most intense and consequential period of acculturation in Romanian history. From the closing decades of the 18th century onward—and with particular intensity in the first decades of the 19th—Romanian culture underwent a massive, irreversible process of adopting elements from the various civilizations with which it came into contact. The Ottoman, Austrian, and Russian empires each left their imprint, while Western European influences—particularly from France, Italy, and the German-speaking lands—penetrated ever more deeply into the social and cultural fabric of the Danubian Principalities.
As Nicolae Gheorghiță has observed, citing the contemporary account of Scarlat Vârnav, Romanian society stood at the beginning of the 19th century in a „state of transition between the Phanariot ideas, moldy and dead, and the new ideas” of Western extraction. This transitional state was neither simple nor linear; it was marked by the coexistence of multiple musical traditions, the gradual abandonment of Ottoman practices, and the selective appropriation of Western models. The complicated transition from the traditional „boyar politics” of the „periphery” to the modern political act borrowed from the „center” (the West) is marked and nuanced by several key historical contexts that determine not only the reorientation of the cultural-artistic and civilizational axes in the Principalities but also the construction of the new identity of the emerging elites in the Romanian lands at the beginning of modernity.
Historical Context: From Phanariot Rule to Western Orientation
Between 1711 and 1821, the Romanian Principalities were under the administrative control of the Ottoman Empire, governed by princes appointed from the Greek Orthodox elites of the Phanar district of Constantinople. This „Phanariot century” created a composite society in which numerous ethnic groups—Romanians, Greeks, Turks, Jews, Albanians, Armenians, Russians, and others—coexisted, each carrying its own largely oral musical practices. Oriental music, particularly Ottoman military bands, was a constant presence in the capitals of Bucharest and Iași.
The year 1821 marked a decisive rupture. The end of Phanariot rule, the Greek War of Independence, and the gradual assertion of Romanian autonomy created conditions for a fundamental reorientation toward the West. The Organic Regulations facilitated the first wave of cultural Westernization. As Haiganus Preda-Schimek has documented, the period between 1821 and 1859 witnessed a deliberate abandonment of the Greco-Ottoman way of life in favor of Western habits. Austrian musicians arrived precisely at this moment, and the shift reflected a broader geopolitical realignment: the decrease of Ottoman influence, increasing Western economic interest, and the development of culture through Romanian students studying abroad.
Sacred Music: Byzantine Chant and the Romanianization of Liturgical Music
Romanian music from the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century was dominated by two brilliant figures: Filothei sin Agăi Jipei and Macarie Ieromonahul. As Marius Constantin Murariu has demonstrated, these musicians clearly and manifestly expressed their idea of „Romanization” of Church songs—one of the most important actions of this period, which had beneficial consequences on Romanian culture. Filothei’s Psaltikia Rumănească (1713) represents the beginning of a systematic effort to translate sung liturgical texts into Romanian, making the spiritual treasures of Byzantine chant accessible to the Romanian faithful in their own language.
The beginning of the 19th century constituted a turning point through the completion of the Chrysanthine notational reform. As Alexandru Marius Dumitrescu has demonstrated, this reform „assured the continuity of a centuries-old art, propagating it widely and with a profound Christian sense.” The Chrysanthine reform was applied in the Romanian Principalities beginning in 1816, when the school ruled by Petros Manouil Efesios was established in Bucharest. This moment overlapped with the completion of the translation of sung liturgical texts into Romanian, creating conditions for a comprehensive transformation of Byzantine musical practice. The publication of Romanian Anastasimataria provided a standardized repertory while preserving the essential characteristics of Byzantine tradition.
The principal idea that emerges from the study of Byzantine musical tradition is that of continuity through transformation. The work of Filothei, the Chrysanthine reform, and the translation of liturgical texts represent not a break with tradition but its adaptation to new circumstances. This „Romanization” was not a rejection of the Byzantine heritage but its renewal from within, making the tradition more accessible while preserving its essential spiritual and musical characteristics.
Secular Music: The Westernization of Musical Life
The abandonment of Ottoman military bands and the establishment of Western-style military bands brought about a radical cultural paradigm shift. As Gheorghiță notes, this affected the entire spectrum of musical life in the capitals. Western musicians—particularly from Austria, Italy, and the German states—arrived in increasing numbers, participating in the renewal work particularly in the first phase (1821–1859).
The rise of Western art forms must be understood within the framework of power relations between the European core and the Eastern European periphery. Edward Said’s concept of orientalism helps describe the early interactions between Western musicians and local music traditions. These interactions gave Western musicians access to distinctive musical material for compositions targeting an expanding European music market. In an age of national struggle, national music was both a concept and a practice in demand by the local intelligentsia.
As Dan Dumitru Iacob has demonstrated, the musical tastes of the elite from the Romanian Principalities changed significantly, passing from folk and Oriental music to classical music. Musical instruction became an educational criterion, offering better chances for success in society and in matrimonial strategies. Private and public concert halls became favourite environments for society life, maintaining forms of sociability and specific representation of the elite. Just like participation at balls and theatres, concert attendance was part of social obligation. The press contributed to the spreading of musical culture through constant publication of news about musical events.
The Emergence of National Composition and Acculturation
The emergence of the Romanian national school of composition must be understood within a broader political, economic, and social context, defined by the gradual transition to capitalist modes of production. Drawing on dependency theory authors such as Samir Amin and Daniel Chirot, musical life in Wallachia and Moldavia closely mirrored the economic development of these countries. Composers sought to create music that was both modern (Western in technique and form) and Romanian (rooted in local traditions). This quest involved careful selection from Byzantine chant, folk music, and Western art music.
The principal ideas that emerge are: first, the transition from periphery to center, as Romanian society moved between the old Phanariot order and Western-oriented modernity; second, continuity through transformation in sacred music; third, music as a catalyst for social distinction and identity formation; fourth, the political economy of musical change reflecting core-periphery power relations; fifth, the interplay between cosmopolitanism and national identity; and sixth, music as a site of identity formation and social division.
The processes of acculturation, globalization, and cosmopolitanism that transformed Romanian musical life continue to shape Romanian musical culture today. The tensions between tradition and modernity, between national identity and cosmopolitan aspiration, remain central themes. Understanding their origins in the 19th century helps us understand the complexities of Romanian musical culture in the present.
Bibliography
Dumitrescu, Alexandru Marius. „Byzantine Musical Tradition in Romania as Revealed in Romanian Anastasimataria (19th–20th Centuries).”
Gheorghiță, Nicolae. „Aculturație, globalizare și cosmopolitism în practicile muzicale din Țara Românească și Moldova în prima jumătate a secolului al XIX-lea.”
Iacob, Dan Dumitru. „Viaţa muzicală a elitelor din Iaşi şi Bucureşti în prima jumătate a secolului al XIX lea.” Editura Academiei Române.
Murariu, Marius Constantin. „Filothei sin Agăi Jipei and His Musical Work.” Editura Arhipelag XXI.
Preda-Schimek, Haiganus. „Musical Migration from Vienna to Bucharest in the 19th Century.”
Amin, Samir. Accumulation on a World Scale. Monthly Review Press, 1974.
Chirot, Daniel. Social Change in a Peripheral Society. Academic Press, 1976.
Said, Edward. Orientalism. Pantheon Books, 1978.
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